How Print Media has Evolved

How Print Media has Evolved

April 9th, 2012 

Written by, Aminah Cruise

          The print media that we know today was gradually developed through many adaptations and changes brought about by the passage of time, and innovation and technology.  The development of paper, moveable type and the printing press, printed and bound books, and eventually the newspaper, magazines, dime novels and pocket books, computers and the Internet are just a handful of these changes.  All types of print media, because of their physical state, longevity, and their potential to be preserved have always also had the potential to make lasting impressions and have long-lasting effects on people. These are things that we can physically hold onto to remember a certain time or period.  In addition to the positive and negative changes that technological innovation has had on print media over time, the digital world that we live in today will continue this trend and have lasting effects on this form of media and, in turn, society as a whole. 

            Paper plays a major role in the world of print media; without it, print media would not be what it is today.  Paper dates all the way back to ancient Egypt in the third millennium BC.  Ancient Egyptians used the papyrus plant to produce a thick material to use like paper.  The paper that we know today was first developed in China in the first millennium AD.  Printing then began in China around 600 AD, with the block printing press.  These inventions, including the paper mill, set the stage for the future technological developments that would shape the print media industry.  

            By the year 1423, block printing was used to print playing cards and pages of books in parts of Europe.  Few things were printed because of the problems associated with block printing.  The method was time-consuming, expensive and the woodcuts on the blocks began to split after repeated use.  The blocks were more suited to copying illustrations, not text.  Around 1451, Johannes Gutenberg, a goldsmith from Mainz, Germany invented the printing press.  This revolutionary invention featured the different “elements of movable type, rag paper, the squeeze press, and oil based inks” ("The invention of," 2007).  Gutenberg also devised “an alloy of lead, tin and antinomy, that would melt at low temperature, cast well in the die, or metal moulds, and be durable in the press” ("Lectures on," 2004).  The interchangeable metal type and the oil-based paints (developed by Renaissance artists) that would adhere to the metal were also very important to the functionality of the printing press.  The efficiency and effectiveness of the innovative printing press was unprecedented.

            The printing press brought about many significant changes that affected Europeans and eventually, as the press spread, the rest of the world.  Among the first books printed was the famous Gutenberg Bible.  Two hundred of these bibles were printed and sold in folded sheets.  The owner of the bible could later have it bound and decorated to their personal liking.  The Gutenberg Bibles were completed and sold at the 1455 Frankfurt Book Fair.  The cost of these bibles was about three years’ pay of the average clerk.  (In 1987 a Gutenberg Bible was sold for $5.4 million dollars.)  When other books began to be printed the type was much like handwriting, to make it more easily accepted by people.  At first, printed books were of a religious nature like most books of that time.  Soon, the books began to cover more topics and a more literate public, hungry for knowledge, began to develop.  Aldus Manutius, a Venetian printer, thought that books should be smaller, cheaper and easier to carry and read.  He created “pocket books” which were smaller, more affordable books that contained translated versions of Greek classics.  These books were very popular and continued the spread of knowledge.  The uses of books changed as new ideas quickly spread and the “information revolution” of that time began. 

            “Printing also facilitated the dissemination and preservation of knowledge in standardized form --- this was most important in the advance of science, technology, and scholarship” ("Lectures on," 2004).  Scientists now had a way to print and share their findings with other scientists.  Thus, creating a way to collaborate with each other and “advance knowledge and understanding” of information and share that as well ("The invention of," 2007).  The church was no longer in control of book copying and could not censor what was being written.  “It is no accident that the breakup of Europe's religious unity during the Protestant Reformation corresponded with the spread of printing” ("The invention of," 2007).  The word of Martin Luther and his Ninety Five Theses quickly spread throughout Germany and other parts of Europe with the help of the printing press.  Luther also traveled through Germany and combined different German dialects into one, standardizing the language and producing the Luther Bible.  Gutenberg’s invention aided in changing the course of history for the Catholic Church in Europe by helping spread the ideas of Martin Luther, the Luther Bible, and Protestantism.  

            The first printing press came to America in 1638, to Cambridge, Massachusetts Bay Colony.  Stephen Day ran the press and one of the first things that he printed and published was the Bay Psalm Book in 1640.  Then on September 25, 1690 the first newspaper called Publick Occurrences: Both Foreign and Domestick, was printed in Boston by Richard Pierce.  It was in distribution for four days and was then suppressed by authorities.  The first continually published newspaper in America was the Boston News-Letter.  It was first published on April 24, 1704; it contained one advertisement.  These early newspapers’ content was a “hodge-podge of whatever a printer fancied or had handy space to fill” (Vivian, 2011).  Then in 1741, the first magazine was published in the American colonies.  It was called The American Magazine and focused mainly on the activities of the colonial government.  Benjamin Franklin followed with his own magazine called General Magazine.  Despite the early development of newspapers, books and magazines, it would still be quite a while before new technology would have profound effects on these types of media and transform them into their own powerful industries. 

            The spread of the Industrial Revolution to the United States, and the improvements made to the printing press helped form and fuel the newspaper industry in this country.  The demand for newspapers was growing since Benjamin Day made newspapers affordable by launching the penny paper, the Sun, in 1833.  The paper’s content was simple and driven more towards what “common folk” were interested in and less about politics and economics.  Factories were developed, which attracted workers who were potential newspaper readers.  Immigrants arrived eager to learn English, and newspapers were the most affordable, easily accessible option.  Over time, many improvements were made to Gutenberg’s original printing press, but the most substantial advancements to the press were Friedrik Koenig’s idea of using steam to power it and the invention of Richard Hoe’s rotary press in 1844.  The rotary press produced 8,000 sheets per hour, but was fragile, only printed on one side, and had to be fed paper by hand.  It was improved and perfected further, and was then able to produce 18,000 sheets per hour, and printed on both sides.  The steam powered rotary press allowed newspapers to meet the growing demands being made for them.  

            Newspapers dominated the mass media for 160 years because the model that it was built upon was so effective and successful.  This model was the “bundling of news, information, and entertainment in one accessible package” (Vivian, 2011).  Newspapers effected people’s lives in very profound ways.  This was the main way that information was spread and effected what topics were discussed among different people in societies.  Advertisers were also enjoying the successes of newspapers and their high numbers of readers.  There was much to gain from buying a newspaper: staying informed of current news, government scandals, and entertainment, gaining other general information, and keeping up with current new and popular products from the ads.   

            As printing became easier and faster books and magazines benefited as well as newspapers.  Irwin P. Beadle and Company introduced “dime novels” also known as “penny dreadfuls” in 1860.  These books provided people, mostly adolescents, with rich, inexpensive fictional stories of wild-west adventures, soldiers, explorers, detectives, urban outlaws, and costume romances. Then in 1939, Robert De Graff introduced his version of the pocket book.  These paperback books were small, lightweight, only 25 cents each, and very popular.  In 1940 Pocket Books sold almost 5,000,000 copies.  Both types of books helped revolutionize society’s reading and book-buying habits.

            The era of general information magazines began with the Saturday Evening Post in 1821.  This was followed by the innovative illustrated magazines in the 1840’s, and magazine photography in National Geographic in 1899.  “Perhaps the most enduring innovation from the rich legacy of the magazine industry will be media visuals” (Vivan, 2011).  For years, National Geographic has been using cutting edge photojournalism to capture readers’ attention.  Technological advances in cameras and film capabilities have continually advanced the capabilities of the photo journalist and enhanced the reader’s experience.  In 1922, the popular Reader’s Digest was founded, followed by Time newsmagazine.  Then on January 27, 1927, the television was born.  By 1936, there were about 200 televisions in use worldwide.  

            Despite the invention of the television, print media sales continued to flourish.  Newspaper circulation reached its height in 1988 at 62.8 million.  The most significant technological advance to affect print media, since Gutenberg’s printing press, was the development of the computer and the Internet.  The computer does not have one true inventor.  It was “invented” by many who contributed different key components.  The computer experienced many milestones before it became the computer that we know today.  We will start with the ENIAC in 1946. This electronic computer was the first “all-purpose” computer, weighed 30 tons, and was as big as two semi trucks.  The Internet began to take shape in 1969 with ARPANET.  The first personal computers came in 1975 with the development of the Altair 8800, followed by the first laptop by IBM the same year.  By 1998 in the United States, half the homes had personal computers.  The Internet revolutionized the way that, not just print media, but mass media in general, is delivered to people around the world.  Mass communication no longer takes a lot of time.  The Internet was just the beginning of the digital era that we are now a part of.  

            From the history provided, it is clear that we went through a print media era.  Now the “digital age” is upon us.  Print media is no longer the easiest, fastest way to communicate information to the public.  The Internet has given us a way to instantly communicate with someone on the other side of the world.  We have the ability to seek out specific information that we need or are interested in quickly and from the comfort of our homes.  The Internet has also given us the ability to voice our opinions to millions of people with the click of a button.  We are able to interact with others online about anything.  Web pages and stories have comment sections that people are all too happy to utilize.  We now have instant access to news television channels, newspapers, magazines, books, shopping, entertainment, advertisements and new products, and a ton of other information.  We now also live in a world where we can’t wait for things; we want everything available at our fingertips at all times.  We don’t want to wait.  Cell phones, or “smart phones” and tablets are another technological innovation that has helped usher in the digital era and the age of “I can’t wait for anything.”  Cell phones are now equipped to access the Internet.  They have become the all-in-one that we need in one small hand held device; radio, videos, newspaper, magazine, games and other entertainment, camera, Internet, books, and shopping.  There are tablets, like the I-Pad, that we can carry in our purses, briefcases, and backpacks.  Wifi is the technology allowing electronic devices to access computer networks wirelessly.  There are so many places now that have free Wifi, allowing people to use their tablets and laptops to access the Internet with even more ease and accessibility.  E-books and e-readers are now threatening that print media genre.  The question is; where does print media fit into a world where everything, including mass media, is going digital?

            Mainstream media has moved to the Internet.  Media outlets continue to try to keep up with technology and give the people what they want.  News channels now have websites containing stories, videos, archives, and comment sections after the stories.  News is available online from online newspapers and newspapers that have websites.  News is also spread through social websites, where people provide quick links to news stories that interest them and might interest their friends as well.  The spread of information is no longer dependent on the printed word and people have begun to move away from the morning paper and magazine subscriptions as an added cost in the budget.  

            The economy has also played a part in the decline of print media.  The “economic disaster” that hit the United States in 2008 left people with less money to spend on things like books, magazines, and newspapers when information can be found just as easily on the Internet.  In 2008, advertising revenues for newspapers fell and cost cutting techniques went into full effect.  Magazine sales have also been way down in the past five years, with many shutting down forever.  Advertising is a major source of revenue for magazines as well, but with sales down, advertisers are also searching for alternatives.  The book industry took a hit from the economic downturn in 2008 also, but may be more easily able to bounce back than the magazine and newspaper.  The reasons being: there is no online equivalent, no advertising and no presses adding to publishing costs.  The biggest threat to the book industry is the potential of the e-readers and e-books.  Only time will tell what the future of print media will be. 

            As we continue to embark on the future of the digital era, I believe that we will continue to see the decline of print media.  Although books are the most secure right now, I think that these too will soon be replaced with a digital counterpart even more advanced than the current e-readers.  The danger of the Internet to print media, are the endless potentials and possibilities.  The Internet and technology is constantly changing and becoming better and more innovative.  Schools are even beginning to incorporate I-Pads instead of books into their arsenal of learning tools.  Our culture now wants the best of the best.  We want the most cutting edge technology in our homes, offices, schools, and pockets.  People want to be able to carry around 19 million movies, books, T.V. shows, songs, and magazines on their Kindle Fire, just because that is the technology that we have available.  So why not have it?  Although print media has contributed probably more than we could ever possibly understand or imagine to our culture and society; it is still becoming obsolete.  We have figured out a new and more effective way to reach mass audiences and communicate with one another and there is no turning back, no matter what individuals want.  

            In the future, print media will continue to become more and more valuable, and our digital world will continue to experience technological advances.  Printed materials have the ability to stand the tests of time and give us physical property to hold onto for sentimental reasons.  The print media has seen positive and negative changes from the technological innovations over the years.  It was still an extremely powerful media that changed history, effected people and societies, and can be considered an era in history.   But with the passing of time, change is inevitable.  The Internet and digital technology has grown and become just as powerful as print media once was.  Despite diminishing print media, communication with people all over the world is easier than it has ever been and the benefits are phenomenal.  Mass media and its delivery will always have serious effects on people and societies.  We just have to remember this and our history, and appreciate the past and how our media has evolved and will continue to evolve. 

           

              

           

How Print Media has Evolved

References

Bellis, M. (n.d.). The history of computers. Retrieved from http://inventors.about.com/library/blcoindex.htm Date retrieved: 8 April 2012

Golden, F. (1999, March 29). Who built the first computer?. TimeMagazine, Retrieved from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990596,00.html Date retrieved: 8 April 2012

History of paper. (2012). Retrieved from http://www.paperonline.org/history-of-paper Date retrieved: 2 April 2012

Kramer, P. (2011 , September 29). [Web log message]. Retrieved from http://patrickkramer.umwblogs.org/2011/09/29/martin-luther-and-the-printing-press/  Date retrieved: 3 April 2012

Lectures on modern european intellectual history: the printing press. (2004, May 13). Retrieved from http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/press.html Date retrieved: 2 April 2012

Printing. (2012). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/477017/printing Date retrieved: 6 April 2012

Printing yesterday and today. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/educator/modules/gutenberg/books/printing/ Date retrieved: 6 April 2012

The appearance of the bible. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.hrc.utexas.edu/exhibitions/permanent/gutenberg/html/6.html Date retrieved: 3 April 2012

The first newspapers in america. (2004, November). Paper Age, Retrieved from http://www.paperage.com/issues/nov_dec2004/11_2004newspapers.pdf

The invention of the printing press and its effects. (2007). Retrieved from http://www.flowofhistory.com/units/west/11/FC74 Date retrieved: 2 April 2012

Vivan, J. (2011). The media of mass communication. Pearson Education, Inc.

Koran Abuse at Guantanamo Bay

 An Example of Inaccuracies in Journalism

May 28, 2012
Written by, Aminah Cruise 

 

             Many detrimental effects can come from stories that contain unsubstantiated or false information, even once a retraction has been made.  The credibility, reputation, job, and the lives of many can be in jeopardy if this occurs.  The effects are numerous and far-reaching.  Because information spreads so quickly, it is extremely important that this information is accurate and truthful.  Media professionals around the world make it their top priority to maintain these elements in the news broadcasts and stories that are presented to the public.  But, human error is inevitable; mistakes are made, retractions are deemed necessary, and lives are thus affected.  

            On May 9, 2005 Newsweek printed a story about soldiers at Guantanamo Bay, Cuba desecrating the Muslim holy book, the Koran.  After the story was printed anti-American protests were common in Islamic communities around the world, riots broke out in Afghanistan, and people were dying.  Two weeks later, on May 23, 2005, Newsweek retracted the story.  The editor Mark Whitaker had this to say “Based on what we know now, we are retracting our original story that an internal military investigation had uncovered Koran abuse at Guantánamo Bay” (Jaquette, 2007).  

            The problem in this situation is that we Americans were already at war with Islamic nations.  This type of story came out in a time of war and volatile situations were very likely to occur and have extremely harmful effects on individuals and the national interest.  The United States is one of the most powerful countries in the world and we are already seen as the “bad guys” in the eyes of many countries including Islamic nations.  We were already the enemy. When a story like this comes out, then they believe that they have something to justify their already festering hate, whether the story is true or not; retraction or no retraction.  When you plant a seed of false information in the minds of people who have hatred and animosity clouding their judgment then the outcome is going to be bad.  Even those involved whose judgment wasn’t biased could not be blamed for being angry and betrayed during this time.  The damage that was done with the presentation of the information cannot be erased easily.  This, in my opinion, is one of the biggest dangers when erroneous information is published. 

            This problem could have been avoided if everyone involved had seen the gravity of the situation and taken many additional steps to ensure the truthfulness and accuracy of the story.  It seems like some things fell through the cracks in this situation.  The people involved were obviously experienced.  Were they blindsided by the enormity and depth of the situation?  

            The journalist should have been more thorough with the investigation and asked more questions of the source.  Newsweek “reported that its senior government source had backed away from his initial story, and Whitaker wrote that ‘we regret’ that any part of the story was wrong” ("Newsweek retracts quran," 2005).  With information of this magnitude it seems legitimate to have your source be willing to corroborate the information that you get from him or her, or be willing to identify them self in the beginning to ensure that they don’t get scared once the story is released.  Evidence should have been a must in this situation as well.  There were reports that detainees at Guantanamo Bay had complained that the Koran was being mishandled, but there was no proof to support their complaints.  If there is no proof, then how can anyone be sure of the truth?  The journalist should have seen the dire need for the truth here.  

            If I were the editor of the story, then I would have asked that question of the journalist myself.  This isn’t just another story.  This involves accusations that are going to rock the Islamic communities, the military communities, and Americans and American politicians in general.  I would want to quote the source and identify him or her.  I would also want to see the reports of the alleged desecration and more importantly, the proof.  That is what the public would want.  They are going to ask all the questions that me, as the editor or the journalist forget to answer in our story.  In this situation, it was to the detriment of the story and everyone involved. 

            If the Koran story had been true, then it would have been justifiable to publish the story, despite the reaction in the Muslim and American worlds.  The truth will come out in the end.  That is my motto.  If you try to hide the truth in the beginning, it only creates more trouble for everyone when it eventually comes out on its own or is forced out.  The information in this story would need to be released in a way that would “soften the blow” so to speak.  This would be better than the information just exploding into the media without the proper reins and professionals needed to make it easier to absorb.

            Mistakes are bound to be made and people will suffer for them.  The Code of Ethics that journalists and media professionals abide by is there to lessen the instance of these mistakes.  Accuracy, truth and the greater good of the public are important to journalists for good reason.  A very important thing to keep in mind is that retractions only clean up some of the mess done by erroneous news reports.  The negative effects vary in severity, and may continue even after the dust has settled.

An Example of Inaccuracies in Journalism
References

Guantanamo bay prisoners allege abuse, desecration of quran . (2005, May 26). Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/military/jan-june05/guantanamo_5-26.html

Jacquette, D. (2007). Journalistic ethics. Pearson Education. Retrieved from http://online.vitalsource.com/#/books/9780558693404/pages/15672263

Newsweek retracts quran story. (2005, May 16). Retrieved from http://articles.cnn.com/2005-05-16/world/newsweek.quran_1_retraction-newsweek-editor-mark-whitaker-quran?_s=PM:WORLD

The Evolution of the Internet

The Evolution of the Internet

 March 6, 2012
Written by, Aminah Cruise

               It is a well known fact that things change over time; the mass media and journalism is no different.  With great technological advances happening faster and faster with each coming year, it is no wonder that digital media and journalism are quickly advancing and making huge strides as well.  Not only is the average person scrambling to keep up, but so are journalists and others in the field of mass media.  The Internet is a powerful global network system that has brought about cyber journalism as a social construct and caused profound changes in journalism and how media is shared, viewed, and developed.  Cyber journalism, including citizen journalism and participatory journalism, and adaptations to the laws that guide journalists are effects that the Internet and our new digital world has had on traditional journalism. 

  

            The Internet began as a tool for the government and employees of universities and the military, and steadily evolved into the World Wide Web that we know today.  Arpanet began in 1969 and was renamed the Internet in 1984.  It linked corporate labs and universities to send files and data from one computer to another.  In 1991, Tim Berners-Lee, a Swiss computer programmer, created the World Wide Web that we are familiar with today.  The Internet has grown exponentially from these humble beginnings, now connecting hundreds of millions of computers.  Because people from all over the world are connected in this way, it is no surprise that the news has always been a popular and important feature of the Internet.

            In 1992, a sophisticated browser called Mosaic (later known as Netscape) was developed by Marc Andreessen.  This web browser made searching the web user-friendly by “allowing users to see words and pictures on the same page for the first time and to navigate using scrollbars and clickable links” (The invention of…).  Netscape allowed online news to become available to most Internet users.  Newspapers and magazines were publishing information online by 1994.  The popularity of news sites put them “among the most widely viewed sites on the Net” (Craig, 2005).  This development made it imperative for news organizations to have a website for users to visit, thus over the next five years there was a boom in the amount of news websites.  Journalists now needed to create content, not only for print audiences, but for online audiences as well.  

            In the late 1990s, the Internet made huge strides along with online journalism.  The development of software such as Dreamweaver, Macromedia, Flash, Adobe Acrobat, Director, and Shockwave helped Web designers make more sophisticated sites and applications.  The first was weblog started in 1997, and public schools begin to connect to the Internet.  In 1998 half the homes in the United States had personal computers.  By 1999 approximately 1,311 T.V. stations and more than 2,800 newspapers had web sites.  The Online News Association (ONA), “a nonprofit membership organization for digital journalists, connecting journalism, technology and innovation” was established ("Online news association,").  Then we were ushered into the new millennium with the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks.  Because of the technological advances of the past decade, people were able to quickly learn about this tragedy and watch as a plane crashed into the second World Trade Center tower.  People immediately felt a sense of urgency in trying to understand what had happened and share the information.  This U.S. catastrophe fueled the use of the Internet and the jobs of online journalists.

            Over the next decade the Internet continued to become the high speed, news filled, interactive, social networking Internet that we know today and regular citizens began to try their hand at “journalism.”  In 2002, Friendster, the first social network site began, paving the way for Myspace and Facebook.  Web logs tipped the scale with many people contributing and creating many different types.  With do-it-yourself software and blogging, people now had a way to publish their own stories online that easily contributed their knowledge, views, news and opinions to millions of people.  Blogging set the stage for citizen journalism.  People have a sense of identity and professionalism if they can voice their opinions about any topic that they choose in their own online page or forum.  The ability to comment on others’ blogs and carry on discussions on any subject that you wish, with just the use of your home computer is intriguing to many.  Certain newsworthy events such as the Columbia Space Shuttle disaster and the earthquake and tsunami that hit South Asia, had news organizations asking citizens to submit photographs and eye witness accounts; encouraging people to get involved in journalism to a degree.  In 2004 the Media Bloggers Association was founded and for the first time, bloggers were given press passes to the Democratic and Republican conventions; a huge accomplishment for “amateur journalists.”  Training for journalism also started to change as cyber journalism changed the face of traditional journalism.  Still, the digital revolution continued strongly as we got closer to the end of the first decade of the 21^st century.  

            In the more recent years, Myspace, Skype, I-tunes, Facebook, e-readers, podcasts, adsense, and You Tube were introduced and quickly became a part of life for people all over the world.  The revolutionary I-phone was produced by Apple and combined many useful tools into one small device.  In 2008 the White House began a blog and new political journalism sites covered the presidential campaign.  The amount of people that viewed the news online and had blogs and cell phones continued to grow.  In 2010, Apple introduced another revolutionary device, the I-Pad.  People everywhere are now armed with the tools that they needed to quickly and easily capture breaking news on their phones or cameras and broadcast their photos or videos online and publish a story to go with it.  

            The many developments and advancements that have been made to our technology have altered almost every aspect of journalism.  Participatory journalism and citizen journalism are fairly new developments that are allowing people to get more involved with content that they come across online.  It is now possible to comment on news stories and bring up a point that the writer might have missed.  We can interact with others who may pose questions that can add to our understanding of the story, or even add information that was missing from the original story.  Many websites, not just news and magazines, have areas for user comments.  People are very excited and willing to let their views and opinions be known.  There are also websites like Indymedia.com, where people can publish their own versions of news stories and have people comment on them. Since people can say whatever they want, these comments must be monitored.  In addition to comments, now anyone can post stories and videos online.  Many people are prepared at a moment’s notice to catch breaking news if they are on the scene.  When college student Andrew Meyer got tasered during John Kerry’s speech at the University of Florida, someone got the video on their cell phone.  This footage of the video is rare and therefore popular on Youtube.com.  People want the inside track and although the video is not good quality, it was wildly popular.  Because the Internet is so vast and popular, posting and publishing breaking news is almost guaranteed to be viewed by millions if published first online.  Citizen journalist websites like The Third Report have become an outlet for these “reporters.”  People have become aware that they have the ability to do these things and voice their opinions and that people will see and hear them online.  The Internet is a powerful tool and people realize what they can do with that power.

            Participatory journalism gets the public even more involved in journalism.  If someone knows a lot about a particular topic, then a reporter may ask them to lend their expertise, or maybe even do some amateur reporting to assist the reporter in the final story.  Getting feedback on stories from readers and taking that into consideration for the story is also participatory journalism.  The public has been encouraged by news outlets and other media organizations to participate and get involved in journalism.  I believe that this encouragement stems from the media’s need to connect with the people and give them exactly what they want and need from their media organizations.  Everyone observes and interprets news in their own ways, and the general public offers a large variety of ideas to journalists.  Social networking sites are also the inside track to what stories people in the general public are interested in and the ideas that they have about them.

            Social networking sites allow citizens to post and share news links.  They can share their opinions and views on the events of their choosing.  These sites are tools that link people of all ages and professions.  Because so many people in the United States have cell phones with Internet access, I-pads, laptops and personal computers, social networking sites and cyber journalism have become a part of our culture.  Getting online is easier now than it has ever been; even children are on the Internet.  We can shop, watch videos, video chat, get entertainment information, watch the news, email, work, job search and apply, read a magazine and books, listen to music, and countless other activities online.  Since our lives are so involved in the Internet, it is no wonder that cyber journalism is a large part of our lives as well.  The Internet is currently the ultimate form of communication and that goes hand in hand with cyber journalism, which is a product of the world and the media being connected through the web.  

            Since the Internet and cyber journalism have become such a big part of our culture, it is safe to say that cyber journalism is a social construct.  As part of our culture, we assign certain meanings to certain things and we all agree on those meanings.  We all agree that the bald eagle is a symbol of America, although there is no sign on it that says so.  Online journalism, or cyber journalism, is the media communicating with us through the Internet.  Many aspects of traditional media have merged with new online journalism techniques to successfully reach the online audience and to keep up with technology.  In American culture, we agree that cyber journalism is the online version of journalism.  We have constructed this idea through social and cultural practice.  If cyber journalism has been successfully socially constructed then the majority of Americans will agree on its meaning.  If cyber journalism is still in active social construction, then we, as a culture, are still trying to agree on its meaning.  Trying to keep up with technology is hard by itself, and cyber journalism is advancing with technology, making it just as hard to keep up with.  If citizen journalists and participatory journalists consider themselves cyber journalists then this helps blur the meaning.  Is journalism education and professionalism part of cyber journalism, or is it all encompassing to include bloggers and citizen journalists as well?  This also leads to questions about the rules that govern bloggers and citizen journalists as opposed to journalists who have been professionally trained to adhere to a certain code of ethics and rules in journalism.  Since cyber journalism is still changing and being molded, then I would have to say that it is still in active social construction.  But another question that is raised is, with so much information online from so many different sources, how do we know which ones are the “legit” ones and which ones are not?  

            The Internet is a powerful tool with vast amounts of information that must be sorted through to find the true, valid information from sites that can be trusted.  It is also very important for journalists to know which sources are reliable and what sites they can go to for reliable information.  Searching the Internet for information can be a daunting task.  For this reason, it is important for journalists to develop good search skills and equally important for the public to pay special attention to what information they are getting and the site that it is coming from.  Government sites that end in .gov and education sites that end in .edu are generally trusted sites.  Public libraries and university libraries can be extremely helpful providers of valid information.  Organization sites that end in .org can be very useful with reliable information as well.  It is always important to pay special attention to the source of the information.  Confirm that the source of information is someone who is qualified to be giving information on the subject.  For journalists, the Internet is not the only source of information that needs to be met with qualms.  “Journalists have to locate knowledgeable people, ask them important questions and report the answers accurately” (Craig, 2005, p. 63).  In this situation it is important to collect accurate information and double check any information that you get from a source that may seem a little off or incorrect.  The accuracy and credibility of information is always important no matter what the reason is that someone needs it; factual information is the most useful kind.  Accuracy and truthfulness is especially paramount for journalists; due to the legal ramifications or suits involved if certain information is published that is untrue or unfounded. 

            The Internet has made it a necessity for the United States to adapt or “tweak” its basic laws that guide and protect journalists to fit online journalism.  Libel and slander are types of defamation that journalists have to avoid.  Libel is false information that is published that hurts someone’s reputation and slander is something spoken that damages a reputation.  When something is published online, it is something that anyone can see or has access to.  Thus, publishing false information is more damaging because anyone and everyone can access it.  There are also four torts of privacy, in which the writer can be sued if a story invades someone’s privacy.  The first tort is the publication of private facts.  This happens when true private information about someone is published.  Intrusion into seclusion is the second tort which happens when “the writer trespasses into someone’s personal space, whether physically or using technology” (Stovall, 2009, p. 314).  The third tort is false light, in which the writer presents or portrays someone as being something that they are not.  Appropriation is the last privacy tort that “is defined as the unauthorized use of a persona’s name, likeness or other integral part of the individual’s persona for commercial purposes” (Stovall, 2009, p315).  There are also copyright laws that protect a person’s creative works.  Copyrights do have a “shelf life” because they don’t last forever.  Advertising has recently become protected by the First Amendment to some degree.  The ad has to be truthful and the product must do what it claims to do for it to be protected.  If the government has good reason for regulating an ad, such as an alcohol ad being aimed at children, then it will do so; otherwise the ad is protected under the First Amendment.  Despite these laws, it is harder for communications on the Internet to be regulated and enforced. 

            Because the Internet is a worldwide communication “it stands apart from most governmental regulation” (Craig, 2005, p. 233).  The laws of different countries are obviously different and this could present problems for journalists who are reporting from a foreign country.  Libel laws are tricky to enforce with something published online because they differ with each state.  It is easy to quickly publish retractions or corrections online and in some states you can only be sued for libel if you don’t print a retraction.  Presently, state laws don’t distinguish between published online material that has been there for three days or three months.  This is the basis of the Blumenthal v. Drudge and America Online, Inc. (1998) case.  Drudge published allegations about Blumenthal on AOL but quickly retracted them.  The case against him is still unresolved.  Another tricky aspect of the Internet is anonymity.  If reporters are contacting people via email, then they are forced to assume that the person is who they say that they are.  Since the boom of the Internet, it is much harder to enforce laws that were once so cut and dry.  The standards for journalists have remained unchanged, but a new set of “rules” have arisen for online journalism.  

            In the earlier years of journalism it was customary to do “anything for the story.”  Of course, this couldn’t last; not in the world that we live in today.  There are standards that journalists must live by and morals and ethics to maintain.  The “10 Commandments of News” were introduced by John Maxwell Hamilton and George A. Krimsky in their 1996 book Hold the Press: The Inside Story on Newspapers.  These “rules” go hand in hand with ethics, morals, and values that we each hold as people and would hold as journalists. They include: thou shalt not lie, threaten a source, report rumors, omit opinion that one disagrees with, show favoritism, misrepresent oneself, plagiarize, tap telephone conversations, use your position for personal gain, or do anything that my be a conflict of interest (Craig, 2005).  We try hard to uphold the standards to which we are held through journalism or anything else because of our morals and ethics.  The standards for online journalism are just as important as traditional standards; though possibly harder to uphold.  Virginia Shea introduced the “Core Rules of Netiquette” in her book Netiquette in 1994.  They include: “remember the human, adhere to the same standards of behavior online that you follow in life, know where you are in cyberspace, respect other people’s time and bandwidth, make yourself look good online, share expert knowledge, help keep flame wars under control, respect other people’s privacy, don’t abuse power, and be forgiving of other people’s mistakes” (Craig, 2005, p. 222-223).  These are good rules for everyone to follow, not just journalists.  If everyone did follow them, then the Internet would be a lot better and safer experience for users.

            The Society of Professional Journalists code is the most widely accepted code of ethics for journalists.  Accuracy and completeness are among the most important concepts of the code of ethics.  These are also the areas of ethics that are most put to the test in online journalism.  There is pressure to “out scoop” competitors and publishing the story first online.  Then keeping that story updated as currently as possible is also important.  Creating a complete and authentic story takes some time, especially when you have to remember that accuracy is also a key element.  The Internet has put a rush on journalism and the media to keep us as up to date as possible.  In this rush, journalism standards and ethics become that much harder to uphold.  

            We will continue to experience technological advances and the Internet will continue to change journalism.  We, the people and journalists, will have to learn how to adapt to these changes and learn as we go.  Cyber journalism will continue to grow as well, and as we are figuring things out it will only get better.  Citizen journalism and participatory journalism are tools for the citizens and journalists involved and we will all learn different things as time goes by.  Laws that pertain to journalism will have to weather the storm as trial and error ensues.  There are big changes that continue to happen in the world of the web and cyber journalism so we just have to hang on for the ride. 

The Evolution of the Internet
References

Craig, R. (2005). Online journalism: reporting, writing, and editing for new media. Boston. Wadsworth.

Marsan, C. D. (2009, February 9). The evolution of the internet. Retrieved from http://www.networkworld.com/slideshows/2009/020909-evolution-internet.html#slide1

Online news association. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://journalists.org/ Date retrieved: March 2, 2012

Outing, S. (2005, May 31). The 11 layers of citizen journalism. Retrieved from http://www.poynter.org/uncategorized/69328/the-11-layers-of-citizen-journalism/

Shedden, D. (2004, December 16). New media timeline 1969-2010. Retrieved from http://www.poynter.org/latest-news/business-news/transformation-tracker/28803/new-media-timeline-1969-2010/

Stovall, J.G. (2009). Writing for the mass media. Pearson Education, Inc.

The invention of the internet. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.history.com/topics/invention-of-the-internet Date retrieved: 2 March 2012

Global Warming: Reality or Hoax?

 Global Warming: Reality or Hoax?

September 8, 2011

 

Written by Aminah Cruise

             There is an ongoing debate about whether or not global warming is actually happening, and whether or not it is as severe and life-threatening as many people make it seem.  On one hand, there are those who believe that there are environmental extremists or alarmists who just seek to scare everyone into a “living green” agenda.   Then, on the other hand, there are those who cannot, and will not ignore scientific facts and data that blatantly show that our planet is in big trouble, due to our ways of life.  Although there is vast valid information available to help us see the important changes in our climate and the way that it is affecting Earth, there are still those who do not believe it.  The global warming debate continues, as scientists, environmentalists, and people who believe in this cause work to bring all the citizens of Mother Earth together to solve this serious problem that is continually damaging our planet and jeopardizing life as we know it.

            Dramatic changes in the climate and warming of ocean temperatures are two of the most important effects of global warming.  These two alarming effects are caused by increases in greenhouse gases that warm the earth’s atmosphere.  They also cause a domino effect which offers up much more damaging consequences for us to consider.  But first, let us focus on the greenhouse gases that contribute to Earth’s warming and the proof that we are causing an increase in global temperatures.  The Earth’s atmosphere is a natural greenhouse and has natural gases that keep heat from escaping.  According to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), an increase in these gases, through human practices, changes the natural greenhouse in the atmosphere.  Burning fossil fuels and deforestation increases the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere.  Methane is released from “the decomposition of wastes in landfills, agriculture, and especially rice cultivation” ( A blanket around, n.d.).  Nitrous oxide is “a powerful greenhouse gas produced by soil cultivation practices” (A blanket around, n.d.).  These changes in the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere will result in warmer temperatures on Earth, which will result in more severe drought periods for certain areas, melting glaciers, more wildfires, more frequent tropical storms, and warmer ocean temperatures promoting further climate change.  The melting of ice cover will raise sea level.  “The complete melting of Greenland ice sheet would be caused by an additional 2 degrees centigrade and would cause global sea level to rise by 5 to 6 meters” (Demirdjua, 2011).  The Antarctic ice sheets are also decreasing in mass.  In three short years (between 2002 and 2005), “the Antarctic ice sheet lost 152 cubic meters of ice” (Climate change, n.d.).  If sea levels continue to rise, many low-lying regions and islands will be in jeopardy of submersion, including coastal regions of the United States and many major cities around the world.  Many effects of anthropogenic climate change can already be seen around the globe, such as: retreating glaciers, a decline in Arctic sea ice, rise in global temperatures, shrinking ice sheets, and ocean acidification.  Many people still don’t realize the severe consequences that we will face in the event of extreme and continued climate change.  Extreme storms including tornadoes, typhoons, hurricanes, and tropical cyclones will be more prevalent.  Rainforests, ocean creatures, arctic wildlife and animals in general are affected by global warming.  The evidence of global warming is all around us. How can we deny it with all of this evidence?  The bottom line is that all living things on Earth are, or will be, negatively affected by the many tragic effects of global warming. 

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (ICCP) includes over one thousand scientists from the United States and several other countries.  These scientists predict that the earth’s temperature will increase between 2.5 and 10 degrees Fahrenheit over the next century.  The ICCP also forecasts the impacts of climate change on many regions of the globe.  

            In North America, there will be an increase in the intensity and duration of heat waves in cities that already experience them, and decreased snow in the western mountains.  In Latin America, the savannah will gradually replace the tropical forest in eastern Amazonia.  With this, comes the risk of significant loss of species biodiversity through extinction in tropical areas.  In Europe there will be an increase in inland flash flooding, coastal flooding, and erosion.  The mountainous areas of Europe will experience retreating glaciers, and a decrease in snow cover and winter tourism.  In Africa, by 2020, between 75 and 250 billion people are projected to be suffering from water stress.  The shortage of water will also reduce rain fed agriculture by 50 percent.  Finally, in Asia, the availability of freshwater is projected to decrease in certain areas by 2050.  Coastal areas will experience increased flooding, and diseases associated with drought and flooding will increase the death rate (The current and future, n.d.). 

            There are still those that believe that global warming is just a big “hoax.”  Their view is like that of Ronald McClellan who states “global warming was a big scam based on fabricated and manipulated data to create an atmosphere where many people could benefit financially and gain academic and social elevation through the advancement of their religion” (McClellan, 2011).  It is also believed that Earth has been having these climate “anomalies” and going through cycles such as the Ice Age, for many years before we came to be on the planet.  Those that believe that global warming is a scam believe it just as strongly as those who believe that our planet needs to be saved.  The people that think that we are being lied to, believe that scientists just want government money to fund their research and they do so by causing alarm and creating a “movement.”  I have read numerous articles by those who do not believe in “climate change” and they are all based on the same notion that we are being falsely alarmed for the financial purposes of those “creating” the global warming problem.  I have yet to see hard evidence or information refuting the data that supports global warming, that is available to us from NASA scientists and thousands of other scientists around the world.  Although some may see the “Climategate” scandal as evidence enough.  The “Climategate” scandal of 2009 supports those who view global warming as a hoax.  After the computer server at the Climate Research Unit (CRU) at the University of East Anglia in the United Kingdom, was hacked, emails and files were copied and stolen.  Skeptics of global warming alleged that scientists were manipulating and exaggerating scientific data to fit their global warming “agenda.”  After this incident, the American public began to be less inclined to accept global warming as the truth and more people became inclined to see that scientists are capable of suppressing scientific data if they want to.  

            Although, many people’s beliefs in global warming have been shaken, there is still no hard evidence against it.  Of course, the Climategate situation appeals to the skeptics.  They are biased and so entrenched in their belief of a hoax that they are ready and willing to accept any kind of information that supports that belief, especially when that information is limited.  There are also those who believe that solar irradiance might be causing the Earth to warm.  Solar irradiance is the amount of energy given off by the sun.  In the past, the sun’s variability has played a role in climate change.  Scientists believe that if the sun were the cause, then there would be a temperature change in every layer of the atmosphere.  They have observed the outer atmosphere cooling and the surface and inner parts of the atmosphere are warming, presumably because of the increase in greenhouse gases. 

So what and who are we to believe?  How do we refute scientific data?  We aren’t scientists or meteorologists who can come to a decision about global warming information on our own.  We have to trust NASA scientists and the scientists who are members of the ICCP.  There has been no solid proof presented that would condemn all of these scientists and prove that they are lying.  They would all have to be lying, and that is one big conspiracy.  If we are all logical human beings, then we need some proof that we are being deceived by thousands and thousands of scientists and anthropogenic climate change supporters, or “environmental alarmists.”  Is global warming really that much harder to believe (with scientific proof as well), than believing that thousands of scientists around the world are involved in a huge conspiracy to scam everyone for money and personal gain?  There are diagrams, reports, and satellite data that show that the Earth is warming and that there are more greenhouse gases in the atmosphere than there once were, or have ever been.  NASA has information from satellites showing the decreasing ice caps and rising sea levels.  The science behind the actual process of global warming isn’t rocket science.  It is easy to understand and very believable.  With such an arsenal of data and scientific proof it is hard to doubt global warming.  There is no doubt that the ocean is warming and that this is affecting many sea creatures and commercial fisheries.  There is evidence of the warmer ocean temperatures affecting the amount of sea ice and thus affecting the lives and survival of certain types of penguins, sea lions, polar bears, and other arctic wildlife.  How do we otherwise explain the melting of humongous ice caps and glaciers?  Being a resident of Texas, I experience extreme heat waves and droughts that worsen with every passing summer.  We must put our trust in the hands of scientists, just as we put our trust in politicians.  We just have to look around us to see the truth. 

            In conclusion, there is still much debate on the issue of global warming.  There are those who refuse to recognize cold, hard facts from respected NASA scientists and there are those of us who refuse to believe that we are being lied to because scientists want more money to fund research.  Until we humans can take responsibility for our actions, instead of burying our heads in the sand, there will be an ongoing debate.  Even if we have doubt, why would we not want to help the planet in any way that we can for all that it does for us?  In our efforts to stop global warming, we are only helping our planet.  So although we may be carpooling, recycling, planting trees, spending more money to buy “green” appliances and vehicles, and attempting to conserve energy in any way that we can, these things are helping our environment whether global warming is happening or not.  There is no hurt in doing these things, so why the big fuss?  Our human activities are causing much harm to our planet on a daily basis.  That much cannot be denied by anyone.  Huge oil spills, landfills, many types of pollutions, littering, coal mining, and deforestation are just a few things that we do regularly that damage our planet.  Despite global warming, these things do damage our planet.  And although there are environmentalists, that some opponents of global warming call extremists, you can’t argue with the fact that we humans do many harmful things to our planet, so we need to do what we can to change that.  Global warming caused by our human activities is continuing to damage this earth that we call home, and we need to do what we can to stop it.

           

             

Global Warming: Reality or Hoax?

References

A blanket around the earth. Retrieved from http://climate.nasa.gov/causes/ Date retrieved: 9 September 2011.

Climate change: how do we know? Retrieved from http://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/ Date retrieved: 31 September 2011.

Demirdjian, Z.. (2011). The Effects of Global Warming On Plants, Animals, and the Ecosystem. Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge, 17(1), I, II. Retrieved September 9, 2011, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 2368393441).

Don’t buy hype about global warming. (2011, September 11). South Florida Sun Sentinel, p. F5.. Retrieved from http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=2447933371&sid=1&Fmt=3&clientId=74379&RQT=309&VName=PQD

McClellan, R.E.. (2011, May 21). It’s arrogant to believe that man controls the climate. The News Herald. Retrieved September 10, 2011, from ProQuest Newsstand. (Document ID: 2427674231).

The current and future consequences of global change. Retrieved from http://climate.nasa.gov/effects/ Date retrieved: 9 September 2011.